NEUROPHYSIOLOGY

Neurophysiology has been a subject of study since as early as 4,000 B.C. Neurophysiology is connected with electrophysiology, neurobiology, psychology, neurology, clinical neurophysiology, neuroanatomy, cognitive science, biophysics, mathematical biology, and other brain sciences.

Brain

The nervous system consists of cells that communicate information about an organism's surroundings and itself. The nervous system of humans is divided into the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS).

The brain is the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate and most invertebrate animals.

The brain can be subdivided into several distinct regions:

The cerebral hemispheres can be further divided into four lobes:

Arousal

Perhaps the most obvious aspect of the behavior of any animal is the daily cycle between sleeping and waking. Arousal and alertness also controlled by an extensive network of brain areas.

Homeostasis

For any animal, survival requires maintaining a variety of parameters of bodily state within a limited range of variation: these include temperature, water content, salt concentration in the bloodstream, blood glucose levels, blood oxygen level, and others

Motivation

According to evolutionary theory, all species are genetically programmed to act as though they have a goal of surviving and propagating offspring. At the level of an individual animal, this overarching goal of genetic fitness translates into a set of specific survival-promoting behaviors, such as seeking food, water, shelter, and a mate.[105] The motivational system in the brain monitors the current state of satisfaction of these goals, and activates behaviors to meet any needs that arise. The motivational system works largely by a reward–punishment mechanism. When a particular behavior is followed by favorable consequences, the reward mechanism in the brain is activated, which induces structural changes inside the brain that cause the same behavior to be repeated later, whenever a similar situation arises. Conversely, when a behavior is followed by unfavorable consequences, the brain's punishment mechanism is activated, inducing structural changes that cause the behavior to be suppressed when similar situations arise in the future.

---

Learning and Memory

Working Memory: Is the ability of the brain to maintain a temporary representation of information about the task that an animal is currently engaged in

Episodic Memory: Is the ability to remember the details of specific events. This sort of memory can last for a lifetime

Semantic Memory: Is the ability to learn facts and relationships

Instrumental learning: Is the ability for rewards and punishments to modify behavior.

Motor Learning: Is the ability to refine patterns of body movement by practicing, or more generally by repetition.

In vertebrates, the nervous system can be split into two parts, the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord), and the peripheral nervous system.
The human brain alone contains around one hundred billion neurons and one hundred trillion synapses; it consists of thousands of distinguishable substructures, connected to each other in synaptic networks.

Translational research and medicine

Neurology, psychiatry, neurosurgery, psychosurgery, anesthesiology, neuropathology, neuroradiology, clinical neurophysiology and addiction medicine are medical specialties that specifically address the diseases of the nervous system. These terms also refer to clinical disciplines involving diagnosis and treatment of these diseases. Neurology works with diseases of the central and peripheral nervous systems, such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and stroke, and their medical treatment. Psychiatry focuses on affective, behavioral, cognitive, and perceptual disorders. Anesthesiology focuses on perception of pain, and pharmacologic alteration of consciousness. Neuropathology focuses upon the classification and underlying pathogenic mechanisms of central and peripheral nervous system and muscle diseases Neurosurgery and psychosurgery work primarily with surgical treatment of diseases of the central and peripheral nervous systems.

What are some disorders of the nervous system?

The nervous system is vulnerable to various disorders. It can be damaged by the following:

Disorders of the nervous system

Disorders of the nervous system may involve the following:

Signs and symptoms of nervous system disorders

The following are the most common general signs and symptoms of a nervous system disorder. However, each individual may experience symptoms differently. Symptoms may include:

The symptoms of a nervous system disorder may resemble other medical conditions or problems. Always consult your physician for a diagnosis.

Physicians who treat nervous system disorders

Physicians who treat nervous system disorders may have to spend a lot of time working with the patient before making a probable diagnosis of the specific condition. Many times, this involves performing numerous tests to eliminate other conditions, so that the probable diagnosis can be made.

---

Diagnostic Tests for Neurological Disorders

What are some diagnostic tests for nervous system disorders?

Evaluating and diagnosing damage to the nervous system is complicated and complex. Many of the same symptoms occur in different combinations among the different disorders. To further complicate the diagnostic process, many disorders do not have definitive causes, markers, or tests.

In addition to a complete medical history and physical examination, diagnostic procedures for nervous system disorders may include the following:

---

What is neurological surgery?

Neurological surgery, also called neurosurgery, is the branch of medicine that provides both operative and nonoperative management of disorders that affect the central and peripheral nervous systems, including their supportive structures and vascular supply, and the operative and non-operative management of pain.

Neurological surgery encompasses disorders of the brain, spine, and nerves, including the following:

The surgeon who specializes in neurological surgery is called a neurosurgeon or neurological surgeon.

---

Acute Spinal Cord Injury

What is an acute spinal cord injury?

The spinal cord is a bundle of nerves that carries messages between the brain and the rest of the body. Acute spinal cord injury (SCI) is due to a traumatic injury that either results in a bruise (also called a contusion), a partial tear, or a complete tear (called a transection) in the spinal cord. SCI is a common cause of permanent disability and death in children and adults.
About 12,000 people a year sustain a spinal cord injury. As many as 231,000 to 311,000 people in the US are living with a spinal cord injury, according to the Spinal Cord Injury Information Network. More than half of all SCIs occur among young people between the ages of 16 and 30 years. The majority of SCI victims (80.9 percent) are male.

What causes an acute spinal cord injury?

There are many causes of SCI. The more common injuries occur when the area of the spine or neck is bent or compressed, as in the following:

What are the symptoms of an acute spinal cord injury?

After a traumatic event, a person may have varying degrees of symptoms associated with the severity and location of the SCI. The location of the injury on the spinal cord will determine how severe the injury will be. For example, an injury that damages the cervical spine (in the neck area) can cause loss of muscle function or strength in all four extremities (arms and legs). This is referred to as tetraplegia (formerly called quadriplegia). An injury of this type often requires mechanical breathing assistance, as with a ventilator, as the chest muscles may also be weakened. An injury to a lower part of the spinal cord that causes paralysis and loss of function in the legs and lower body is called paraplegia.

The extent of the damage to the spinal cord determines whether the injury is complete or incomplete. A complete injury means that there is no movement or feeling below the level of the injury. An incomplete injury means that there is still some degree of feeling or movement below the level of the injury.
Initially after a spinal cord injury, the patient may experience spinal shock, which causes loss or decrease in feeling, muscle movement, and reflexes. As swelling subsides, other symptoms may appear depending on the location of the injury. Generally, the higher up the level of the injury is to the spinal cord, the more severe the symptoms. For example, an injury to the neck, at C1 or C2 (the first and second vertebrae in the spinal column), and especially in the mid-cervical vertebrae of C3, C4, and C5, affects the respiratory muscles and the ability to breathe. A lower injury, in the lumbar vertebrae, may affect nerve and muscle control to the bladder, bowel, and legs.

The following are the most common symptoms of acute spinal cord injuries. However, each individual may experience symptoms differently. Symptoms may include:

The symptoms of SCI may resemble other medical conditions or problems. Always consult your physician for a diagnosis.

How are acute spinal cord injuries diagnosed?

The full extent of the SCI may not be completely understood immediately after the injury, but may be revealed with a comprehensive medical evaluation and diagnostic testing. Acute SCI is a medical emergency. Anytime there is a suspicion of injury to the spinal cord, emergent medical attention is absolutely necessary. The diagnosis of SCI is made with a physical examination and diagnostic tests. During the examination, the physician obtains a complete medical history and inquires as to how the injury occurred. Trauma to the spinal cord can cause neurological problems and requires further medical follow-up. Occasionally, surgery is necessary to stabilize the spinal cord after acute SCI.

Diagnostic tests may include:

Treatment of an acute spinal cord injury

Specific treatment for an acute spinal cord injury will be determined by your physician based on:

SCI requires emergency medical attention on the scene of the accident or injury. This is accomplished by immobilizing the head and neck areas to prevent the patient from moving. This may be very difficult since the victim and/or bystanders may be very frightened after the traumatic incident. There is currently no way to repair a damaged or bruised spinal cord, though researchers are actively seeking means of stimulating spinal cord regeneration. The severity of the SCI and the location determines if the SCI is mild, severe, or fatal. Surgery is sometimes necessary to evaluate the injured cord, stabilize fractured back bones, decompress (or release) the pressure from the injured area, and to manage any other injuries that may have been a result of the accident. Treatment is individualized, depending on the extent of the condition and the presence of other injuries.

Treatment may include:

Recovery from a SCI requires long-term hospitalization and rehabilitation. An interdisciplinary team of physicians, nurses, therapists (physical, occupational, or speech), and other specialists work to medically manage the patient to control pain, to monitor the heart function, blood pressure, body temperature, nutritional status, bladder and bowel function, and attempt to control involuntary muscle shaking (spasticity). Rehabilitation focuses on preventing muscle wasting and contractures, and works to retrain the patient to use other muscles to aid in mobility and movement. Some of the important chronic complications of SCI include pressure ulcers (so-called "bed sores") and pneumonia.

Life-long considerations for a person with a SCI

A traumatic event that results in a SCI is devastating to the person and the family. The healthcare team educates the family after hospitalization and rehabilitation on how to best care for the person at home and outlines specific clinical problems that require immediate medical attention by the patient's physician. The disabled person requires a focus on maximizing his or her capabilities at home and in the community. Positive reinforcement will encourage him or her to strengthen his or her self-esteem and promote independence. A person with a SCI requires frequent medical evaluations and diagnostic testing following hospitalization and rehabilitation to monitor his or her progress.

---

Alzheimer's Disease

What is Alzheimer's disease?

Alzheimer's disease is a progressive, neurodegenerative disease that occurs when nerve cells in the brain die and often results in the following:

With Alzheimer's disease, motor function is often preserved.

When Alzheimer's was first identified by German physician, Alois Alzheimer, in 1906, it was considered a rare disorder. Today Alzheimer's disease is recognized as the most common cause of dementia (a disorder in which mental functions deteriorate and break down). An estimated 5.3 million Americans have Alzheimer's disease. According to the Alzheimer's Association, this number includes 5.1 million people over the age of 65, as well as 200,000 to 500,000 people younger than 65 who have early-onset Alzheimer's and other types of dementias.

How is Alzheimer's different from other forms of dementia?

Alzheimer's disease is distinguished from other forms of dementia by characteristic changes in the brain that are visible only upon microscopic examination during autopsy. Brains affected by Alzheimer's disease often show presence of the following:

Another characteristic of Alzheimer's disease is the reduced production of certain brain chemicals necessary for communication between nerve cells, especially acetylcholine, as well as norepinephrine, serotonin, and somatostatin.

What causes Alzheimer's disease?

Although intense investigation has been underway for many years, the causes of Alzheimer's disease are not entirely known. Suspected causes often include the following:

What are the warning signs or symptoms of Alzheimer's disease?

According to the Alzheimer's Association, the following are the most common symptoms of Alzheimer's disease. However, each individual may experience symptoms differently. Symptoms may include:

The symptoms of Alzheimer's disease may resemble other medical conditions or problems. Always consult your physician for a diagnosis.

How is Alzheimer's diagnosed?

There is not a single, comprehensive test for diagnosing Alzheimer's disease. By ruling out other conditions through a process of elimination, physicians, or other specialists, can obtain a diagnosis of probable Alzheimer's disease with approximately 90 percent accuracy. However, the only way to confirm a diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease is through autopsy.

Examination and evaluation are essential in determining whether the dementia is the result of a treatable illness. In addition to a complete medical history and extensive neurological motor and sensory exam, diagnostic procedures for Alzheimer's disease may include the following:

Prevention of Alzheimer's

Because the cause of the disease is unknown, there are no prevention protocols to follow at this time. And, because the controllable risk factors for Alzheimer's disease are unknown, it is not yet possible to reduce the chances of developing the disease.

Treatment for Alzheimer's

Specific treatment for Alzheimer's disease will be determined by your physician based on:

At this time, there is no cure for Alzheimer's, no way of slowing down the progression of this disease, and no treatment available to reverse the deterioration of Alzheimer's disease. New research findings give reason for hope, and several drugs are being studied in clinical trials to determine if they can slow the progress of the disease or improve memory for a period of time.

There are some medications available to assist in managing some of the most troubling symptoms of Alzheimer's disease, including the following:

In managing the disease, physical exercise and social activity are important, as are proper nutrition, health maintenance, and a calm and well-structured environment.

Alzheimer's rehabilitation

The rehabilitation program for persons with Alzheimer's differs depending upon the symptoms, expression, and progression of the disease, and the fact that making a diagnosis of Alzheimer's is so difficult. These variables determine the amount and type of assistance needed for the Alzheimer's individual and family.
With Alzheimer's rehabilitation, it is important to remember that, although any skills lost will not be regained, the caregiving team must keep in mind the following considerations:

---

Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)

What is Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)?

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a terminal neurological disorder characterized by progressive degeneration of nerve cells in the spinal cord and brain. Often referred to as "Lou Gehrig's disease" (a famous baseball player who died from the disease), it is one of the most devastating of the disorders that affects the function of nerves and muscles. ALS does not affect mental functioning or the senses (such as seeing or hearing), and it is not contagious. Currently, there is no cure for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

Statistics of ALS

Consider the following statistics regarding ALS:

What are the different types of ALS?

There are three known classifications of ALS, including the following:

What are the symptoms of ALS?

Patients who suffer from ALS initially experience weakness in one of their limbs that develops over a matter of days or, more commonly, a few weeks. Then, several weeks to months later, weakness develops in another limb. Sometimes the initial problem can be one of slurred speech or difficulty swallowing. As ALS progresses, though, more and more symptoms are noticed. The following are the most common symptoms of ALS. However, each individual may experience symptoms differently. Symptoms may include:

As the disease progresses, symptoms may include:

The symptoms of ALS may resemble other conditions or medical problems. Always consult your physician for a diagnosis.

How is ALS Diagnosed?

In addition to a complete medical history and physical examination, diagnostic procedures for ALS may include the following:

The symptoms of ALS may resemble other conditions or medical problems. Always consult your physician for a diagnosis.

How is ALS Diagnosed?

In addition to a complete medical history and physical examination, diagnostic procedures for ALS may include the following:

Treatment for ALS

Specific treatment for ALS will be determined by your physician based on:

For most people with ALS, primary treatment may involve the management of symptoms, and may include physical, occupational, speech, respiratory, and nutritional therapies. Some medications and/or heat or whirlpool therapy may help to relieve muscle cramping. Exercise, although recommended in moderation, may help to maintain muscle strength and function. There is no proven treatment for ALS. However, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved Rilutek®, the first drug that has prolonged the survival of persons with ALS.
Managing the symptoms of ALS is a process that may be challenging for people with the condition, their caregivers, and the medical team. However, it is important to know that there are many community resources available for support and assistance.
Researchers are conducting studies to increase their understanding of genes that may cause the disease, mechanisms that can trigger motor neurons to degenerate in ALS, and approaches to stop the progress leading to cell death.

---

Bell's Palsy

What is Bell's Palsy?

Bell's palsy is an unexplained episode of facial muscle weakness or paralysis that begins suddenly and worsens over three to five days. This condition results from damage to the 7th (facial) cranial nerve, and pain and discomfort usually occurs on one side of the face or head. It can strike anyone at any age, but it occurs most often in pregnant women, and people who have diabetes, influenza, a cold or another upper respiratory ailment. This nerve disorder affects about 40,000 US adults and children each year. Bell's palsy strikes men and woman equally. It is less common before age 15 or after age 60. Bell's palsy is not considered permanent, but in rare cases it does not disappear. Currently, there is no known cure for Bell's palsy; however, recovery usually begins two weeks to six months from the onset of the symptoms. The majority of people with Bell's palsy recover full facial strength and expression.

What causes Bell's palsy?

A specific cause of Bell's palsy is unknown, however, it has been suggested that the disorder is due to inflammation that is directed by the body's immune system against the nerve controlling movement of the face. The weakness or symptoms seen in Bell's palsy is sometimes seen in association with the following:

These conditions cause weakness through a different mechanism than the usual inflammation of Bell's palsy.

What are the Symptoms of Bell's Palsy?

The following are the most common symptoms of Bell's palsy. However, each individual may experience symptoms differently. Symptoms may include:

The symptoms of Bell's Palsy may resemble other conditions or medical problems. Always consult your physician for a diagnosis.

Treatment for Bell's Palsy

One uniformly recommended treatment for Bell's palsy is protecting the eye from drying at nighttime or while working at a computer. Eye care, which may include eye drops during the day, ointment at bedtime, or a moisture chamber at night, helps to protect the cornea from scratching, which is crucial to the management of Bell's palsy.

Your physician will establish an appropriate treatment protocol for your condition based on the severity of your symptoms and your medical profile. Other treatment options include:

Some individuals may choose to use alternative therapies in the treatment of Bell's palsy, but there is no proof these alternative therapies actually make an absolute difference in a person's recovery. Such treatment may include:

---

Brain Tumors

What is a Brain Tumor?

A brain tumor is an abnormal growth of tissue in the brain. The tumor can either originate in the brain itself (primary brain tumor), or come from another part of the body and travel to the brain (metastastic or secondary brain tumor). Brain tumors may be classified as either benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous), depending on their behavior. A benign tumor does not contain cancer cells and usually, once removed, does not recur. Most benign brain tumors have clear borders, meaning they do not invade surrounding tissue. These tumors can, however, cause symptoms similar to cancerous tumors because of their size and location in the brain.
Malignant brain tumors contain cancer cells. Malignant brain tumors are usually fast growing and invade surrounding tissue. Malignant brain tumors very rarely spread to other areas of the body, but may recur after treatment. Sometimes, brain tumors that are not cancer are called malignant because of their size and location, and the damage they can do to vital functions of the brain.
Metastatic brain tumors are tumors that begin to grow in another part of the body, then spread to the brain through the lymph system and bloodstream. Common types of cancer that can travel to the brain include lung cancer, breast cancer, nasopharygeal cancer, melanoma (a type of skin cancer), and colon cancer. These cancers are described and treated based on the specific type of cancer. For example, breast cancer that has spread to the brain is still called breast cancer.

Facts about Brain Tumors

Consider the following facts about brain tumors from the American Cancer Society:

What causes brain tumors?

The majority of brain tumors have abnormalities of genes involved in cell cycle control, causing uncontrolled cell growth. These abnormalities are caused by alterations directly in the genes, or by chromosome rearrangements which change the function of a gene.
Patients with certain genetic conditions (e.g., neurofibromatosis, von Hippel-Lindau disease, Li-Fraumeni syndrome, and retinoblastoma) also have an increased risk of developing tumors of the central nervous system. There have also been some reports of people in the same family developing brain tumors who do not have any of these genetic syndromes.
Workers in oil refining, rubber manufacturing, and chemists may have a higher incidence of certain types of tumors, although not all studies have found such links. Which, if any, chemical toxin is related to an increase in tumors is unknown at this time. Patients who have received radiation therapy to the head as part of prior treatment for other malignancies are also at an increased risk for new brain tumors.

What are the symptoms of a Brain Tumor?

The following are the most common symptoms of a brain tumor. However, each person may experience symptoms differently. Symptoms vary depending on the size and location of tumor. Many symptoms are related to an increase in pressure in or around the brain. There is no spare space in the skull for anything except the delicate tissues of the brain and its fluid. Any tumor, extra tissue, or fluid can cause pressure on the brain and result in increased intracranial pressure (ICP), which may result from one or more of the ventricles that drain cerebral spinal fluid (CSF, the fluid that surrounds the brain and spinal cord) becoming blocked and causing the fluid to be trapped in the brain. This increased ICP may cause the following:

Symptoms of brain tumors in the cerebrum (large, outer part of the brain) may include:

Symptoms of brain tumors in the brainstem (base of brain) may include:

Symptoms of brain tumors in the cerebellum (back of brain) may include:

The symptoms of a brain tumor may resemble other conditions or medical problems. Always consult your physician for a diagnosis.

How is a brain tumor diagnosed?

In addition to a complete medical history and physical examination, diagnostic procedures for brain tumors may include the following:

Diagnosis of a brain tumor depends mostly on the types of cells involved and the tumor location.

What are the different types of Brain Tumors?

There are many different types of brain tumors. They are usually categorized by the type of cell where the tumor begins, or they are also categorized by the area of the brain where they occur. The most common types of brain tumors include the following:

What is the treatment for brain tumors?

Specific treatment for brain tumors will be determined by your physician based on:

Treatment may include (alone or in combination):

Newer therapies that may be used to treat brain tumors include the following:

Long-term outlook for a person with a brain tumor:

Prognosis greatly depends on all of the following:

As with any cancer, prognosis and long-term survival can vary greatly from individual to individual. Prompt medical attention and aggressive therapy are important for the best prognosis. Continuous follow-up care is essential for a person diagnosed with a brain tumor. Side effects of radiation and chemotherapy, as well as second malignancies, can occur in survivors of brain tumors.
Rehabilitation for lost motor skill and muscle strength may be required for an extended amount of time. Speech therapists and physical and occupational therapists may be involved in some form of rehabilitation. More research is needed to improve treatment, decrease side effects of the treatment for this disease, and develop a cure. New methods are continually being discovered to improve treatment and to decrease side effects.
Please consult your physician with any questions or concerns you may have regarding this condition.

---

Epilepsy and Seizures

What is Epilepsy?

Epilepsy is a neurological condition involving the brain that makes people more susceptible to having recurrent unprovoked seizures. It is one of the most common disorders of the nervous system and affects people of all ages, races and ethnic background.
Anything that interrupts the normal connections between nerve cells in the brain can cause a seizure; this includes a high fever, low blood sugar, alcohol or drug withdrawal, or a brain concussion. Under these circumstances, anyone can have one or more seizures. However, when a person has two or more unprovoked seizures, he or she is considered to have epilepsy. There are many possible causes of epilepsy, including an imbalance of nerve-signaling chemicals called neurotransmitters, tumors, strokes, and brain damage from illness or injury, or some combination of these. In the majority of cases, there may be no detectable cause for epilepsy.

What is a Seizure?

The brain is the center that controls and regulates all voluntary and involuntary responses in the body. It consists of nerve cells that normally communicate with each other through electrical activity. A seizure occurs when part(s) of the brain receives a burst of abnormal electrical signals that temporarily interrupts normal electrical brain function.

What are the different types of Seizures?

There are several different types of seizures, including the following:

What causes a seizure?

A person may experience one or many seizures. While the exact cause of the seizure may not be known, the more common seizures are caused by the following:

Other possible causes of seizures may include the following:

What are the Symptoms of a Seizure?

The person may have varying degrees of symptoms depending upon the type of seizure. The following are general symptoms of a seizure or warning signs of seizures. Symptoms or warning signs may include:

During the seizure, the person's lips may become bluish and breathing may not be normal. The movements are often followed by a period of sleep or disorientation.
The symptoms of a seizure may resemble other problems or medical conditions. Always consult your physician for a diagnosis.

How are Seizures Diagnosed?

The full extent of the seizure may not be completely understood immediately after onset of symptoms, but may be revealed with a comprehensive medical evaluation and diagnostic testing. The diagnosis of a seizure is made with a physical examination and diagnostic tests. During the examination, the physician obtains a complete medical history of the person and family and asks when the seizures occurred. Seizures may be due to neurological problems and require further medical follow up.

Diagnostic tests may include:

Treatment of a seizure:

Specific treatment for a seizure will be determined by your physician based on:

The goal of seizure management is to control, stop, or decrease the frequency of the seizures without interfering with the normal activities of daily living (ADLs). The major goals of seizure management include the following:

Treatment may include:

More information regarding the person with seizures or epilepsy:

---

Guillain-Barré Syndrome

What is Guillain-Barré syndrome?

Guillain-Barré syndrome is a neurological disorder in which the body's immune system attacks part of the peripheral nervous system. The onset can be quite sudden and unexpected. The disorder can develop over a few days, or it may take up to several weeks. A person experiences the greatest weakness within the first two weeks after symptoms appear.

Who is affected by Guillain-Barré syndrome?

Although rare, afflicting about one person in 100,000, Guillain-Barré syndrome can affect people at any age and both men and women equally. The disorder usually occurs a few days or weeks after a person has had symptoms of a respiratory or gastrointestinal viral infection. Occasionally, pregnancy, surgery, or vaccinations will trigger the syndrome.

What causes Guillain-Barré syndrome?

Currently, it is not known why Guillain-Barré strikes some people. What is known is that the body's immune system begins to attack the body itself.
Normally, the cells of the immune system attack only foreign material and invading organisms, but in Guillain-Barré syndrome, the immune system starts to destroy the myelin sheath that surrounds the axons of many nerve cells, and, sometimes, the axons themselves.
When this occurs, the nerves cannot send signals efficiently, the muscles lose their ability to respond to the commands of the brain, and the brain receives fewer sensory signals from the rest of the body. The result is an inability to feel heat, pain, and other sensations.
Guillain-Barré syndrome can occur after a viral infection, surgery, trauma, or a reaction to an immunization.

What are the symptoms of Guillain-Barré syndrome?

The following are the most common symptoms of Guillain-Barré syndrome. However each individual may experience symptoms differently.
The first symptoms include varying degrees of weakness or tingling sensations in the legs, which, sometimes, spreads to the arms and upper body. The symptoms may increase in severity until the following does or does not occur - in these cases, the disorder is considered a medical emergency:

Although symptoms can become life threatening, partial recovery is possible from even the most severe cases of Guillain-Barré syndrome. However, some degree of weakness may still be present. The symptoms of Guillain-Barré syndrome may resemble other medical conditions or problems. Always consult your physician for a diagnosis.

How is Guillain-Barré syndrome diagnosed?

According to the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS): Guillain-Barré is called a syndrome rather than a disease because it is not clear that a specific disease-causing agent is involved. A syndrome is a medical condition characterized by a collection of symptoms (what the patient feels) and signs (what a physician can observe or measure). The signs and symptoms of the syndrome can be quite varied, so physicians may, on rare occasions, find it difficult to diagnose Guillain-Barré in its earliest stages. Signs and symptoms that may differentiate Guillain-Barré from other disorders include the following. With Guillain-Barré:

Other diagnostic procedures include the following:

Treatment for Guillain-Barré

Specific treatment for Guillain-Barré syndrome will be determined by your physician based on:

Currently, there is no known cure for Guillain-Barré syndrome. The goal of treatment is to prevent breathing problems and provide supportive care (relief of symptoms). Medications are used to control pain and other conditions that may be present. In addition, treatments such as plasmapheresis or immunoglobulin administration may be used to suppress the immune system and/or reduce inflammation caused by the immune system’s response to the disease.
Plasmapheresis is a procedure which removes the plasma (liquid part of the blood) and replaces it with other fluids. Antibodies are also removed with the plasma, which is thought to help reduce the symptoms of the disease. Another treatment is the administration of immunoglobulin, a blood product that helps to decrease the immune system’s attack on the nervous system.
Other therapies include hormonal therapy and physical therapy (to increase muscle flexibility and strength). Through research, new treatments for Guillain-Barré syndrome are continually being identified.

---

Head Injury

What is a Head Injury?

Head injuries are one of the most common causes of disability and death in adults. The injury can be as mild as a bump, bruise (contusion), or cut on the head, or can be moderate to severe in nature due to a concussion, deep cut or open wound, fractured skull bone(s), or from internal bleeding and damage to the brain. A head injury is a broad term that describes a vast array of injuries that occur to the scalp, skull, brain, and underlying tissue and blood vessels in the head. Head injuries are also commonly referred to as brain injury, or traumatic brain injury (TBI), depending on the extent of the head trauma.
Head injuries are rising dramatically, with around 1.47 million injured per year - about 52,000 of those dying. Five million Americans are alive today who have had a head injury and now need help with the activities of daily living, costing the country more than $56 billion per year.

What are the different types of Head Injury?

The following are some of the different types of head injuries:

A. Concussion: A concussion is an injury to the head area that may cause instant loss of awareness or alertness for a few minutes up to a few hours after the traumatic event.

B. Skull Fracture:A skull fracture is a break in the skull bone. There are four major types of skull fractures, including the following:

What causes a Head Injury?

There are many causes of head injury in children and adults. The most common traumatic injuries are from motor vehicle accidents (sutomobiles, motorcycles, or struck as a pedestrian), from violence, from falls, or as a result of child abuse. Subdural hematomas and brain hemmorages (the so-called "intraparenchymal hemmorages") can sometimes happen spontaneaously.

What causes bruising and internal damage to the brain?

When there is a direct blow to the head, shaking of the child (as seen in many cases of child abuse), or a whiplash-type injury (as seen in motor vehicle accidents), the bruising of the brain and the damage to the internal tissue and blood vessels is due to a mechanism called coup-countrecoup. A bruise directly related to trauma, at the site of impact, is called a coup lesion (pronounced COO). As the brain jolts backwards, it can hit the skull on the opposite side and cause a bruise called a countrecoup lesion. The jarring of the brain against the sides of the skull can cause shearing (tearing) of the internal lining, tissues, and blood vessels that may cause internal bleeding, bruising, or swelling of the brain.

What are the Symptoms of a Head Injury?

The person may have varying degrees of symptoms associated with the severity of the head injury. The following are the most common symptoms of a head injury. However, each individual may experience symptoms differently. Symptoms may include:

The symptoms of a head injury may resemble other problems or medical conditions. Always consult your physician for a diagnosis.

How are head injuries diagnosed?

The full extent of the problem may not be completely understood immediately after the injury, but may be revealed with a comprehensive medical evaluation and diagnostic testing. The diagnosis of a head injury is made with a physical examination and diagnostic tests. During the examination, the physician obtains a complete medical history of the patient and family and asks how the injury occurred. Trauma to the head can cause neurological problems and may require further medical follow up.

Diagnostic tests may include:

Treatment of a head injury:

Specific treatment of a head injury will be determined by your physician based on:

Depending on the severity of the injury, treatment may include:

Treatment is individualized, depending on the extent of the condition and the presence of other injuries. If the patient has a severe head injury, he/she may require monitoring for increased intracranial pressure (pressure inside the skull). Head injury may cause the brain to swell. Since the brain is covered by the skull, there is only a small amount of room for it to swell. This causes pressure inside the skull to increase, which can lead to brain damage.

How is ICP monitored?

Intracranial pressure is measured in two ways. One way is to place a small hollow tube (catheter) into the fluid-filled space in the brain (ventricle). Other times, a small, hollow device (bolt) is placed through the skull into the space just between the skull and the brain. Both devices are inserted by the physician either in the intensive care unit (ICU) or in the operating room. The ICP device is then attached to a monitor that gives a constant reading of the pressure inside the skull. If the pressure goes up, it can be treated right away. While the ICP device is in place the patient will be given medication to stay comfortable. When the swelling has gone down and there is little chance of more swelling, the device will be removed.

Life-long considerations for a person with a head injury:

The key is to promote a safe environment for children and adults and to prevent head injuries from occurring. The use of seat belts when riding in the car and helmets (when worn properly) for activities such as bicycle riding, in-line skating, and skateboarding may protect the head from sustaining severe injuries. Persons who suffer a severe brain injury may lose part(s) of muscle, speech, vision, hearing, or taste function, depending on the area of brain damage. Long- or short-term changes in personality or behavior may also occur. These persons require long-term medical and rehabilitative (physical, occupational, or speech therapy) management. The extent of the person's recovery depends upon the type of brain injury and other medical problems that may be present. It is important to focus on maximizing the person's capabilities at home and in the community. Positive reinforcement will encourage the patient to strengthen his/her self-esteem and promote independence

---

Headache

What is a Headache?

A headache is pain or discomfort in the head or face area. Headaches vary greatly in terms of pain location, pain intensity, and how frequently they occur. As a result of this variation, several categories of headache have been created by the International Headache Society (IHS) to more precisely define specific types of headaches.

What aches when you have a Headache?

There are several areas in the head that can hurt when you have a headache, including the following:

The tissues of the brain itself do not hurt because they do not have pain-sensitive nerve fibers.

What causes a Headache?

Headaches may be caused by a number of conditions, such as disorders of the neck, eyes, brain, jaw, or teeth. Headaches with an underlying medical condition are classified as secondary headaches because they are related to the condition. An example of this would be a headache due to neck injury or sinus infection.
Other headaches are classified as primary because the headache itself is the main medical problem, although underlying non-medical causes, such as muscle tension or foods, may be identified. Other contributing factors may include medications, dehydration, or changing levels of hormones. These factors that influence headaches are sometimes called headache triggers.

What are some of the different types of Primary Headaches?

What are the most serious Symptoms of a Headache?

Headache symptoms depend upon the type of headache. The frequency of headaches and the intensity of the symptoms may vary as well. Symptoms that may suggest a more serious headache include any of the following:

The symptoms of a headache may resemble other conditions or medical problems. Always consult your physician for a diagnosis.

How are headaches diagnosed?

The full extent of the problem may not be understood immediately, but may be revealed with a comprehensive medical evaluation and diagnostic testing. The diagnosis of a headache is made with a careful history, physical examination and diagnostic tests.

Questions commonly asked during the exam may include, but are not limited to, the following:

If the history is consistent with migraine or tension-type headaches and the neurological exam is normal, no further diagnostic testing may be necessary. However, if it is not a primary type headache, then other tests may be needed to determine the cause.

Tests used to determine the cause of a headache may include:

Treatment for headaches:

Specific treatment for headaches will be determined by your physician based on:

The ultimate goal of treatment is to stop headaches from occurring. Adequate headache management depends on the accurate identification of the type of headache and may include:

Migraine headaches may require specific medication management including:

Some headaches may require immediate medical attention including hospitalization for observation, diagnostic testing, or even surgery. Treatment is individualized depending on the underlying condition causing the headache. Full recovery depends on the type of headache and other medical problems that may be present.

---

Lumbar Disc Disease (Herniated Disc)

Anatomy of the Lumbar Spine:

The vertebral column, also called the backbone, is made up of 33 vertebrae that are separated by spongy disks and classified into four distinct areas. The cervical area consists of seven bony parts in the neck; the thoracic spine consists of 12 bony parts in the back area; the lumbar spine consists of five bony segments in the lower back area; five sacral bones (fused into one bone, the sacrum); and four coccygeal bones (fused into one bone, the coccyx).

Lumbar disc disease occurs in the lumbar area of the spine. The lumbar area of the spine (and other areas of the spine) is made up of two parts, including the following:

What is Lumbar Disc Disease (herniated disc, ruptured disc or bulging disc)?

As we age, the intervertebral disc may lose water and become dried out. As this happens, the disc compresses. This may lead to the deterioration of the tough outer ring allowing the nucleus, or the inside of the ring, to bulge out. This is considered a bulging disc.
As the disc continues to degenerate, or with continued stress on the spine, the inner nucleus pulposus may actually rupture out from the annulus. This is considered a ruptured, or herniated, disc. The fragments of disc material can then press on the nerve roots that are located just behind the disc space. This can cause pain, weakness, numbness, or changes in sensation.
Most disc herniations happen at the lower lumbar spine, especially at the L4-5 and L5-S1 levels.

What causes Lumbar Disc Disease?

Lumbar disc disease is due to a change in the structure of the normal disc. Most of the time, disc disease comes as a result of aging and the degeneration that occurs within the disc. Occasionally, severe trauma can cause a normal disc to herniate. Trauma may also cause an already herniated disc to worsen.

What are the Symptoms of Lumbar Disc Disease?

The symptoms of lumbar disc disease vary depending on where the disc has herniated, and what nerve root it is pushing on. The following are the most common symptoms of lumbar disc disease. However, each individual may experience different symptoms. Symptoms may include:

The symptoms of lumbar disc disease may resemble other conditions or medical problems. Always consult your physician for a diagnosis.

How is Lumbar Disc Disease diagnosed?

In addition to a complete medical history and physical examination, diagnostic procedures for lumbar disc disease may include the following:

Treatment for Lumbar Disc Disease:

Specific treatment for lumbar disc disease will be determined by your physician based on:

Typically, conservative therapy is the first line of treatment to manage lumbar disc disease. This may include a combination of the following:

When these conservative measures fail, surgery for removal of a herniated disc may be recommended. Surgery is done under general anesthesia. An incision is placed in the lower back over the area where the disc is herniated. Some bone from the back of the spine may be removed to gain access to the area where the disc is located. Typically, the herniated part of the disc and any extra loose pieces of disc are removed from the disc space.
After surgery, restrictions may be placed on the patient's activities for several weeks while healing is taking place to prevent another disc herniation from occurring. Your physician will discuss any restrictions with you.
There are other experimental therapies that are being used to treat lumbar disc disease. Discuss these treatment options with your physician.

---

Meningitis

What is Meningitis?

Meningitis is an inflammation of the meninges, the membranes that surround the brain. There are three meninges, including the following:

What Causes Meningitis?

There are two distinct types of meningitis, each with different causes:

How does the infection reach the brain?

The infection can reach the brain via several different routes, including through the bloodstream from another infected part of the body, through the bones of the skull from infected sinuses or inner ears, or from a head injury, such as a fractured skull or penetrating wound. In particular, this occurs when the body's resistance is compromised by certain factors such as following surgery or an extended hospitalization, a weakened immune system, or as a result of chronic kidney failure.

What are the Symptoms of Meningitis?

The following are the most common symptoms of meningitis. However, each individual may experience symptoms differently. Symptoms may include:

Symptoms for children may also include:

It is important to note that these symptoms may not occur all at once, nor in everyone who contracts meningitis. The symptoms of meningitis may resemble other conditions or medical problems. Always consult your physician for a diagnosis.

How is Meningitis Diagnosed?

In addition to a complete medical history and physical examination, diagnostic procedures for meningitis may include the following:

Treatment for Meningitis:

Specific treatment for meningitis will be determined by your physician based on:

Treatment may include:

What is Supportive Therapy for Meningitis?

While a person is recovering from meningitis, other therapies may be initiated to improve healing and comfort, and provide relief from symptoms. These may include the following:

In addition, supplemental oxygen or mechanical ventilation (respirator) may be required if you become very ill and have difficulty breathing.

Prevention of meningitis:

Several vaccines are currently available to prevent some of the bacterial organisms that can cause meningitis. However, routine vaccination with these vaccines is recommended primarily for infants and children.
In certain conditions, your physician may recommend one of the meningitis vaccines. These conditions may include, but are not limited to, the following:

If you have questions regarding prevention, consult your physician.

---

Multiple Sclerosis

Multiple Sclerosis

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic disease of the central nervous system. It is thought to be an autoimmune disorder. It is an unpredictable condition that can be relatively benign, disabling, or devastating. Some individuals with MS may be mildly affected while others may lose their ability to see clearly, write, speak, or walk when communication between the brain and other parts of the body becomes disrupted.
Myelin is a fatty tissue that surrounds and protects the nerve fibers. Myelin is lost in multiple areas with MS. This loss of myelin forms scar tissue called sclerosis. These areas are also called plaques or lesions. When damaged in this way, the nerves are unable to conduct electrical impulses to and from the brain.

What causes Multiple Sclerosis?

There are many possible causes of MS, including the following:

However, not enough is known about the role these factors play to definitively describe why a particular patient develops MS.

What are the symptoms of MS?

The symptoms of MS are erratic. They may be mild or severe, of long duration or short. They may appear in various combinations, depending on the area of the nervous system affected. The following are the most common symptoms of MS. However, each individual may experience symptoms differently. Symptoms may include:

Approximately 50 percent of all people with MS experience cognitive impairments related to their disease. The effects of these impairments may be mild, often detectable only after comprehensive testing, and may include difficulty with any/all of the following:

Symptom categories of MS:

The symptoms of MS may resemble other medical conditions or problems. Always consult your physician for a diagnosis.

How is Multiple Sclerosis diagnosed?

With today's medicine, there is no definitive test available to diagnose multiple sclerosis. However, a probable diagnosis can be made by following a careful process which demonstrates findings that are consistent with MS, that also rule out other causes and diseases.

What are the two criteria used when diagnosing MS?

What does an evaluation for MS cover?

Evaluation for MS involves a complete medical history and neurological exam, which includes:

Evaluation procedures for MS:

The following may be used when evaluating for multiple sclerosis:

Treatment for MS:

Specific treatment for MS will be determined by your physician based on:

Treatments for the conditions associated with MS may include the following:

There is no cure yet for MS. However, there are strategies to modify the disease course, treat exacerbations, manage symptoms, and improve function and mobility.

Rehabilitation for people with MS:

Rehabilitation varies depending upon the range, expression, severity, and progression of symptoms. MS rehabilitation may help to accomplish the following:

---

Muscular Dystrophy

What is Muscular Dystrophy?

Muscular dystrophy (MD) is a broad term that describes a genetic (inherited) disorder of the muscles. Muscular dystrophy causes the muscles in the body to become very weak. The muscles break down and are replaced with fatty deposits over time.
Other health problems commonly associated with muscular dystrophy include the following:

Some forms of MD first appear in infancy or early to late childhood, while others may not appear until adolescence, middle-age, or later.The most common forms of muscular dystrophy are Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) and Becker muscular dystrophy. The two forms are very similar, but Becker muscular dystrophy is less severe than DMD. Girls are rarely affected by either of these two forms of muscular dystrophy.

What causes muscular dystrophy?

Duchenne muscular dystrophy is a genetic disease which means it is inherited. Our genes determine our traits, such as eye color and blood type. Genes are contained in the cells of our bodies on stick-like structures called chromosomes. There are normally 46 chromosomes in each cell of our body, or 23 pairs. The first 22 pairs are shared in common between males and females, while the last pair determine gender and are called the sex chromosome pair: females have two X chromosomes, while males have one X and one Y chromosome.
Duchenne muscular dystrophy is caused by an X-linked recessive gene. "X-linked" means that the gene causing the trait or the disorder is located on the X chromosome. Genes on the X chromosome can be recessive or dominant, and their expression in females and males is not the same because the genes on the Y chromosome do not exactly pair up with the genes on the X. X-linked recessive genes are expressed in females only if there are two copies of the gene (one on each X chromosome). However, for males there only needs to be one copy of an X-linked recessive gene in order for the trait or disorder to be expressed. For example, a woman can carry a recessive gene on one of the X chromosomes unknowingly, and pass it on to a son, who will express the trait or disease.

Therefore, half of the daughters have the gene and can pass it to the next generation. The other half do not have the gene and therefore cannot pass it on. Half of the sons do not have the gene and cannot pass it on. The other half of the sons have inherited the gene and will express the trait or disorder (in this case, DMD).

What are the Symptoms of Muscular Dystrophy?

Muscular dystrophy is usually diagnosed in children between 3 and 6 years of age. Early signs of the illness include a delay in walking, difficulty rising from a sitting or lying position, and frequent falling, with weakness typically affecting the shoulder and pelvic muscle as one of the initial symptoms. The following are the most common symptoms of muscular dystrophy. However, each individual may experience symptoms differently. Symptoms may include:

A tell-tale clinical characteristic for Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is Gowers' sign. Children with Duchenne muscular dystrophy find it very hard to get up from a sitting or lying position on the floor. They first pull up to their hands and knees. The child walks his/her hands up their legs to brace themselves as they rise to a standing position.
Another classic symptom of muscular dystrophy is known as the "slip through" symptom. Your child's physician puts his/her hands around the sides of the child's chest, right up under the arms. As the child is lifted up, the shoulders weaken and move upward, almost allowing the child to slip through the physician's hands.
In addition, children with muscular dystrophy often have very large calf muscles due to the large amounts of fatty deposits that are replacing muscle.
The symptoms of muscular dystrophy may resemble other conditions or medical problems. Always consult your child's physician for a diagnosis.

How is muscular dystrophy diagnosed?

The diagnosis of muscular dystrophy is made with a physical examination and diagnostic testing by your child's physician. During the examination, your child's physician obtains a complete prenatal and birth history of the child and asks if other family members are known to have muscular dystrophy.

Diagnostic tests for muscular dystrophy may include:

Treatment for Muscular Dystrophy:

Specific treatment for muscular dystrophy will be determined by your child's physician based on:

To date, there is no known treatment, medicine, or surgery that will cure muscular dystrophy, or stop the muscles from weakening. The goal of treatment is to prevent deformity and allow the child to function as independently as possible.
Since muscular dystrophy is a life-long condition that is not correctable, management includes focusing on preventing or minimizing deformities and maximizing the child's functional ability at home and in the community.

Management of muscular dystrophy is either non-surgical or surgical. Non-surgical interventions may include:

Surgical interventions may be considered to manage the following conditions:

Long-term outlook for a child with muscular dystrophy:

Muscular dystrophy is a progressive condition that needs life-long management to prevent deformity and complications. Walking and sitting often becomes more difficult as the child grows. Usually by the age of 12, the child needs a wheelchair because the leg muscles are too weak to work. Heart or lung problems often occur by the late teenage years or into the early 20s.
The interdisciplinary healthcare team will work with your family to improve your child's functional outcomes and to provide support as you learn to care for your child's needs.
The Muscular Dystrophy Association (MDA) can be an important resource, both financially and emotionally, for parents of children with muscular dystrophy.

---

Neurocutaneous Syndromes

What are Neurocutaneous Syndromes?

Neurocutaneous syndrome is a broad term for a group of neurologic (brain, spine, and peripheral nerve) disorders. These diseases are life-long conditions that can cause tumors to grow inside the brain, spinal cord, organs, skin, and skeletal bones.
The three most common types of neurocutaneous syndromes include the following:

What causes Neurocutaneous Syndromes?

Tuberous sclerosis, NF, and Sturge-Weber disease are all conditions that are congenital (present at birth).
Although the true prevalence of tuberous sclerosis is not known, it is estimated that this disease occurs in one in 6,000 persons in the US. It is an autosomal dominant condition. Autosomal means that both males and females are equally affected and dominant means that only one copy of the gene is necessary to have the disorder. Many children born with TS are the first cases in a family, since the majority of TS is caused by a new gene change (mutation), and is not inherited. However, parents of a child with TS may have very subtle symptoms of the disorder, and should be carefully examined. Even if no symptoms are present, the parents are considered at a slightly increased risk to have another child with TS, greater than that of the general population.
According to the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS), fibromatosis Type 1 (NF1) occurs in about one in 3,000 to 4,000 births in the US. NF1 is an autosomal dominant condition caused by a gene on chromosome 17, which is inherited from a parent with the disease (in half of the cases). Neurofibromatosis Type 2 (NF2) occurs less frequently, affecting about one in 25,000 births in the US. The gene which causes NF2 is found on chromosome 22. A parent with NF has a 50/50 chance of having a child with the disease.
NF may also be the result of a new gene change (mutation). Thirty percent to fifty percent of NF cases are caused by a new mutation and are not inherited. Males and females are equally affected, regardless of how the disease occurs. Schwannomatosis is a recently-recognized form of NF that is genetically distinct from NF1 and NF2. It occurs rarely, and only 15 percent of cases are the inherited form. The cause of Sturge-Weber disease is unknown and is considered to be sporadic (occurs by chance). Sometimes, other family members will have hemangiomas (a benign growth that consists of blood vessels) to a lesser degree than the person with Sturge-Weber disease.

What are the symptoms of Neurocutaneous Syndromes?

The following are the most common symptoms of tuberous sclerosis, neurofibromatosis, and Sturge-Weber disease. However, each individual may experience symptoms differently. Symptoms may include:

A.Tuberous Sclerosis

Growths, called tubers, are often found growing inside of the brain and retinal area of the eye. Tuberous sclerosis affects many organs in the body including the brain, spinal cord, lungs, heart, kidneys, skin, and skeletal bones. Mental retardation, developmental delays, seizures, and learning disabilities are also associated with this disease.

B.Neurofibromatosis (NF)

There are three distinct types of NF, classified as NF I, NF II, and schwannomatosis.

C.Sturge-Weber Disease

The classic symptom of this disease is a port-wine stain located on the face, typically near or around the eye and forehead areas. A port-wine stain is present from birth and is a flat area that varies in color from red to dark purple. The birthmark is caused by the formation of too many tiny blood vessels under the skin. There may also be associated brain abnormalities on the same side of the brain as the face lesion. Neurological changes that occur with this condition may include seizures, muscle weakness, changes in vision, and mental retardation. Glaucoma (a condition that causes increased pressure in the eye) may also be present at birth. Unlike tuberous sclerosis and NF, Sturge-Weber disease does not affect the other organs of the body.

The symptoms of neurocutaneous syndromes may resemble other conditions or medical problems. Always consult your physician for a diagnosis.

How are neurocutaneous syndromes diagnosed?

Tuberous sclerosis, NF, and Sturge-Weber disease are congenital (present at birth). The diagnosis is made with a physical examination and diagnostic tests. During the examination, the physician obtains a complete medical history and asks if other family members are known to have any of these conditions. In babies and children, the physician will also ask about developmental milestones, since these disorders can be associated with other neurological problems and may require further medical follow-up.
Diagnostic tests may include:

Treatment of neurocutaneous syndromes:

Specific treatment for neurocutaneous syndromes will be determined by your physician based on:

Since neurocutaneous syndromes are life-long conditions that are not curable, the focus is on medically managing the symptoms. A person is best treated with an interdisciplinary team that may include the following healthcare providers:

Surgery may be needed to remove tumors that may be cancerous, as well as for cosmetic reasons.

Life-long considerations for a person with Neurocutaneous Syndromes:

Since tuberous sclerosis, NF, and Sturge-Weber disease are life-long conditions that are not correctable, management includes focusing on preventing or minimizing deformities and maximizing the person's capabilities at home and in the community. Positive reinforcement will encourage the person to strengthen his/her self-esteem and promote independence.
In children, the full extent of the disease is usually not completely understood immediately after birth, but may be revealed as the child grows and develops.
Genetic counseling may be recommended by the physician to provide information on the recurrence risks for these disorders and any available testing.

---

Parkinson's Disease

Parkinson's Disease

Parkinson's disease (PD or, simply, Parkinson's) is the most common form of parkinsonism, a group of motor system disorders. It is a slowly progressing, degenerative disease that is usually associated with the following symptoms, all of which result from the loss of dopamine-producing brain cells:

Dopamine is a substance produced in the body which has many effects, including smooth and coordinated muscle movement.

Facts about Parkinson's Disease:

It is a myth that Parkinson's disease was cured after the introduction of levodopa (L-dopa) in the 1960s. In fact, about 60,000 Americans are newly diagnosed with Parkinson's disease each year, with more than 1 million Americans affected at any one time. Further, more people suffer from Parkinson's disease than multiple sclerosis, muscular dystrophy, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis combined.

What causes Parkinson's Disease (PD)?

The specific cause of PD is unknown; however, medical experts believe the symptoms are related to a chemical imbalance in the brain caused by brain-cell death. Parkinson's disease is chronic (persists over a long period of time), and progressive (symptoms grow worse over time).
Although the disease may appear in younger patients (even teenagers), it usually affects people in late middle age. It is not contagious, nor is it likely passed on from generation to generation.
The biggest risk factor for developing PD is advancing age. The average age for the onset of PD is 60 years. In addition, 50 percent more men are affected than women, according to the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. However, the reason for this is unclear.
Family history is another important risk factor. Individuals with a parent or sibling who are affected have approximately two times the chance of developing PD. This increased risk is most likely because of a combination of environmental and genetic factors.
Environmental causes are being researched and the strong consistent findings are that rural living, exposure to well water, and exposure to agricultural pesticides and herbicides are related to PD. It is important to remember, however, that these factors do not guarantee the development of PD, nor does their absence prevent it. Having one or more close relatives with PD increases one's risk of developing the disease; however, unless there is a known genetic mutation for PD present, the increased risk is only 2 percent to 5 percent.
Currently researchers believe that in most individuals the cause of PD is a combination of genetics and environmental exposure.

Parkinson's Syndrome, Atypical Parkinson's, or Parkinsonism

Parkinson's disease is also called primary parkinsonism or idiopathic Parkinson's disease. (Idiopathic is the term for a disorder for which no cause has yet been identified).
In the other forms of parkinsonism, either the cause is known or suspected, or the disorder occurs as a secondary effect of another primary neurological disorder that may have both primary and secondary symptoms of Parkinson's disease. These disorders, described as Parkinson's Syndrome, Atypical Parkinson's, or, simply, parkinsonism, may include the following:

What are the four primary symptoms of Parkinson's?

The following are the most common symptoms of Parkinson's disease. However, each individual may experience symptoms differently. Symptoms may include:

Other symptoms of Parkinson's disease (PD):

Symptoms of Parkinson's disease vary from patient to patient. The symptoms may appear slowly and in no particular order. Early symptoms may be subtle and may progress over many years before reaching a point where they interfere with normal daily activities.
The four cardinal symptoms of PD are listed above. Other symptoms are divided into motor (movement related) and nonmotor symptoms.

As the disease progresses, walking may become affected, causing the patient to stop in mid-stride or "freeze" in place, and maybe even fall over. Patients also may begin walking with a series of quick, small steps as if hurrying forward to keep balance, a practice known as festination.
The symptoms of Parkinson's disease may resemble other conditions or medical problems. Always consult your physician for a diagnosis.

How is Parkinson's disease diagnosed?

Making an accurate diagnosis in the early stages of Parkinson's disease can be difficult, as the beginning signs and symptoms may be considered to be indications of other conditions or the effects of normal aging. For this reason, observation of the patient may be required for some time until the symptoms are consistently present.
Currently, there are no blood or laboratory tests that are useful in the diagnosis of PD. Diagnosis of PD is based primarily on a medical history and thorough neurological examination. Brain scans and/or lab tests may be performed to help rule out other diseases or conditions, but brain scan generally will turn out to be normal with PD.

Methods to assist with the diagnosis of PD include:

Treatment for Parkinson's Disease:

Specific treatment for a Parkinson's disease will be determined by your physician based on:

With today's medicine, we have yet to find a cure for Parkinson's disease. However, based upon the severity of the symptoms and medical profile, the physician will establish an appropriate treatment protocol. Treatment for Parkinson's disease may include the following:

Medication for Parkinson's Disease:

Once the diagnosis of PD has been made, the next decision is whether a patient should receive medication, which depends on the following:

No two patients react the same way to a given drug, therefore, it takes time and patience to find an appropriate medication and dosage to alleviate symptoms.

Surgery for Parkinson's disease:

Based on the severity of the condition and the medical profile, the physician may recommend surgery as one treatment option for Parkinson's disease.
There are several types of surgery that may be performed that can help patients with Parkinson's disease. Most of the treatments are aimed at helping the tremor or rigidity that comes with the disease. In some patients, surgery may decrease the amount of medication that is needed to control the symptoms of Parkinson's disease, including the following:
There are three types of surgeries that may be performed for Parkinson's disease, including the following:

It is important to remember that surgery may help with symptoms of Parkinson's disease, but does not cure the disease or stop the progression of the disease.

---

Mental Health & Psychiatry

Mental health disorders strike millions people, Some disorders are mild, while others are more disabling and require intensive management and care. If left untreated, a mental health disorder can continue for months or years and may affect your personal relationships, work life and social life.
Areas of focus include anxiety and panic attacks, depression, post-traumatic disorders, family and marital conflict, personality disorders, schizophrenia, and sexual abuse

Eating Disorders

The term eating disorders refers to a variety of disorders. The common feature of all the eating disorders is abnormal eating behaviors. Eating disorders are serious mental health problems and can be life threatening. Anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge eating disorder are common eating disorders among adolescents and young adults. Obesity may also be included as an eating disorder and can affect individuals of all ages, including children, adolescents, and adults. There are several types of eating disorders that require the clinical care of a psychiatrist or other mental health professional

Generalized Anxiety Disorder

Anxiety disorders include panic disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), post-traumatic stress disorder, generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), and phobias (social phobia, agoraphobia, and specific phobia). Many anxiety disorders are accompanied by substance abuse, eating disorders, and depression. Many people experience more than one anxiety disorder at one time.

What is generalized Anxiety Disorder?

Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) causes its sufferers chronic and exaggerated worry and tension that seem to have no substantial cause. People with generalized anxiety disorder often worry excessively about health, money, family, or work, and continually anticipate disaster. Although GAD may be accompanied by depression, substance abuse, or another anxiety disorder, impairment is usually mild, except in severe cases. Generally, people with this disorder do not:

What are the characteristics of Generalized Anxiety Disorder?

People with this disorder usually realize that their anxiety is more intense than the situation warrants, but cannot rid themselves of these irrational concerns. The following are the most common symptoms of GAD. However, each individual may experience symptoms differently. Symptoms may include:

The symptoms of GAD may resemble other psychiatric conditions. Always see your doctor for a diagnosis.

Who is affected by GAD?

GAD begins gradually, usually in childhood or adolescence, but can begin in adulthood, too. It is more commonly seen in women and often occurs in relatives of those affected. Each year, 3.1 percent of people ages 18 and 54 are affected by GAD, and approximately 6.8 million American adults have it.

How is generalized Anxiety disorder diagnosed?

GAD is diagnosed by a doctor or mental health professional, who can help determine whether the symptoms you are experiencing are related to an anxiety disorder or another medical condition.

Treatment for generalized anxiety disorder

Specific treatment for GAD will be determined by your doctor based on:

Treatment may include:

---

Adjustment Disorders

What is an adjustment disorder?

An adjustment disorder is defined as an emotional or behavioral reaction to an identifiable stressful event or change in a person's life that is considered maladaptive or somehow not an expected healthy response to the event or change. The reaction must occur within three months of the identified stressful event or change happening. The identifiable stressful event or change in the life of a child or adolescent may be a family move, parental divorce or separation, the loss of a pet, birth of a brother or sister, to name a few.

What causes adjustment disorders?

Adjustment disorders are a reaction to stress. There is not a single direct cause between the stressful event and the reaction. Children and adolescents vary in their temperament, past experiences, vulnerability, and coping skills. Their developmental stage and the capacity of their support system to meet their specific needs related to the stress are factors that may contribute to their reaction to a particular stress. Stressors also vary in duration, intensity, and effect. No evidence is available to suggest a specific biological factor that causes adjustment disorders.

Who is affected by adjustment disorders?

Adjustment disorders are quite common in children and adolescents. They occur equally in males and females. While adjustment disorders occur in all cultures, the stressors and the signs may vary based on cultural influences. Adjustment disorders occur at all ages, however, it is believed that characteristics of the disorder are different in children and adolescents than they are in adults. Differences are noted in the symptoms experienced, severity and duration of symptoms, and in the outcome. Adolescent symptoms of adjustment disorders are more behavioral such as acting out, while adults experience more depressive symptoms.

What are the symptoms of an adjustment disorder?

In all adjustment disorders, the reaction to the stressor seems to be in excess of a normal reaction, or the reaction significantly interferes with social or occupational (educational) functioning. There are six subtypes of adjustment disorder that are based on the type of the major symptoms experienced. The following are the most common symptoms of each of the subtypes of adjustment disorder. However, each child may experience symptoms differently. Symptoms may include:

A. Adjustment disorder with depressed mood

B. Adjustment disorder with anxiety

C. adjustment disorder with anxiety and depressed mood A combination of symptoms from both of the above subtypes (depressed mood and anxiety) is present.

D. adjustment disorder with disturbance of conduct

E. adjustment disorder with mixed disturbance of emotions and conduct A combination of symptoms from all of the above subtypes are present (depressed mood, anxiety, and conduct).

F. Adjustment Disorder Unspecified: Reactions to stressful events that do not fit in one of the above subtypes are present. Reactions may include behaviors such as social withdrawal or inhibitions to normally expected activities (i.e., school or work). The symptoms of adjustment disorders may resemble other medical problems or psychiatric conditions. Always consult your child's (adolescent's) physician for a diagnosis.

How are adjustment disorders diagnosed?

A child and adolescent psychiatrist or a qualified mental health professional usually makes the diagnosis of an adjustment disorder in children and adolescents following a comprehensive psychiatric evaluation and interview with the child or adolescent and the parents. A detailed personal history of development, life events, emotions, behaviors, and the identified stressful event is obtained during the interview.

Treatment for adjustment disorders:

Specific treatment for adjustment disorders will be determined by your child's (adolescent's) physician based on:

Treatment may include:

Prevention of adjustment Disorders

Preventive measures to reduce the incidence of adjustment disorders in children are not known at this time. However, early detection and intervention can reduce the severity of symptoms, enhance the child's normal growth and development, and improve the quality of life experienced by children or adolescents with adjustment disorders.

Behavior Disorders

Did You Know?
Boys are two to three times more likely to have ADHD than girls.
Behavior disorders (sometimes referred to as disruptive behavior disorders) are the most common reasons children are referred for mental health evaluations and treatment. All disruptive behavior is not the same. Behavior disorders include mental health problems with a focus on behaviors that both identify emotional problems and create interpersonal and social problems for children and adolescents in the course of their development.
The most common behavior disorder in children is attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Conduct disorder focuses on the mental health problems identified and created by more disruptive behaviors. Oppositional defiant disorder is yet another behavior disorder that focuses on the behavior that is disruptive to relationships with others.
There are many types of behavioral disorders that require clinical care by a physician or other healthcare professional

Mood Disorders

While major depressive disorder can develop at any age, the average age at onset is the mid-20s.
The average age of onset for a first manic episode of bipolar disorder is during the early 20s.

What are Mood Disorders?

Mood disorders refer to a category of mental health problems that include all types of depression and bipolar disorder. Mood disorders are sometimes called affective disorders.

What causes Mood Disorders?

What causes mood disorders is not well known. There are chemicals in the brain, called endorphins, that are responsible for positive moods. Other chemicals in the brain, called neurotransmitters, regulate endorphins. Most likely, depression (and other mood disorders) is caused by a chemical imbalance in the brain. Life events (such as unwanted changes in life) may also contribute to a depressed mood.
Affective disorders aggregate in families and are considered to be multifactorially inherited. Multifactorial inheritance means that "many factors" are involved. The factors that produce the trait or condition are usually both genetic and environmental, involving a combination of genes from both parents. Often one gender (either males or females) is affected more frequently than the other in multifactorial traits. There appears to be a different threshold of expression, which means that one gender is more likely to show the problem, over the other gender.

Who is affected by Mood Disorders?

Anyone can feel sad or depressed at times. However, mood disorders are more intense and difficult to manage than normal feelings of sadness. Children, adolescents, or adults who have a parent with a mood disorder have a greater chance of also having a mood disorder. However, life events and stress can expose or exaggerate feelings of sadness or depression, making the feelings more difficult to manage. Sometimes, life's problems can trigger depression. Being fired from a job, getting divorced, losing a loved one, death in the family, and financial trouble, to name a few, all can be difficult and coping with the pressure may be troublesome. These life events and stress can bring on feelings of sadness or depression or make a mood disorder harder to manage. The chance for depression in females in the general population is nearly twice as high (12 percent) as it is for males (6.6 percent). Once a person in the family has this diagnosis, the chance for their siblings or children to have the same diagnosis is increased. In addition, relatives of persons with depression are also at increased risk for bipolar disorder (manic depression). The chance for manic depression (or bipolar disorder) in males and females in the general population is about 2.6 percent. Once a person in the family has this diagnosis, the chance for their siblings or children to have the same diagnosis is increased. In addition, relatives of persons with manic depression are also at increased risk for depression.

What are the symptoms of Mood Disorders?

Depending upon age and the type of mood disorder present, a person may exhibit different symptoms of depression. The following are the most common symptoms of a mood disorder. However, each individual may experience symptoms differently. Symptoms may include:

In mood disorders, these feelings appear more intense than what a person may normally feel from time to time. It is also of concern if these feelings continue over a period of time, or interfere with an individual's interest in family, friends, community, or work. Any person who expresses thoughts of suicide should be evaluated immediately.
The symptoms of mood disorders may resemble other conditions or psychiatric problems. Always consult your physician for a diagnosis.

How are mood disorders diagnosed?

Mood disorders are a real medical disorder. A psychiatrist or other mental health professional usually diagnoses mood disorders following a comprehensive psychiatric evaluation.

Treatment for mood disorders:

Specific treatment for mood disorders will be determined by your physician based on:

Mood disorders can often be effectively treated. Treatment should always be based on a comprehensive evaluation. Treatment may include one, or more, of the following:

Families play a vital supportive role in any treatment process.

Prevention of Mood Disorders:

Preventive measures to reduce the incidence of mood disorders are not known at this time. However, early detection and intervention can reduce the severity of symptoms, enhance the individual's normal growth and development, and improve the quality of life experienced by persons with mood disorders.

Manic Depression / Bipolar Disorder

What is Manic Depression?

Manic depression, also known as bipolar disorder, is classified as a type of affective disorder or mood disorder that goes beyond the day's ordinary ups and downs, and is a serious medical condition and important health concern in this country. Manic depression is characterized by periodic episodes of extreme elation, elevated mood, or irritability (also called mania) countered by periodic, classic depressive symptoms.
Depression is a mood disorder that involves a child's body, mood, and thoughts. It can affect and disrupt eating, sleeping, or thinking patterns, and is not the same as being unhappy or in a "blue" mood, nor is it a sign of personal weakness or a condition that can be willed or wished away. Children with a depressive illness cannot merely "pull themselves together" and get better. Treatment is often necessary and many times crucial to recovery.

There are three primary types of depression, including:

Who is affected by Manic Depression?

Manic depression affects more than 5.7 million American adults - or about 2.6 percent of Americans age 18 and older in a given year. When symptoms are present before the age of 12, they are often confused with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) - a syndrome that is usually characterized by serious and persistent difficulties resulting in inattentiveness or distractibility, impulsivity, and hyperactivity.
Affecting men and women equally (although women are more likely to experience more depressive and less manic symptoms), manic depression often begins in adolescence or early adulthood. In fact, the median age of onset is 25. Manic depression is likely to run in families and, in some cases, is believed to be hereditary. Researchers are still undergoing intense research to identify a gene that may be responsible for this disorder.

What are the symptoms of manic depression?

The following are the most common symptoms of manic depression. However, each individual may experience symptoms differently.

For a diagnosis of manic depression to be made, an individual must exhibit both depressive and manic symptoms to a varying degree, depending upon the severity of the disorder. The symptoms of manic depression may resemble other psychiatric conditions. Always consult your physician for a diagnosis.

How is manic depression diagnosed?

Because depression has shown to often co-exist with other medical conditions, such as heart disease, cancer, or diabetes, and other psychiatric disorders, such as substance abuse, or anxiety disorders, seeking early diagnosis and treatment is crucial to recovery. A diagnosis is often made after a careful psychiatric examination and medical history performed by a psychiatrist or other mental health professional.

Treatment for Manic Depression

Specific treatment for manic depression will be determined by your physician based on:

Treatment may include either, or a combination, of the following:

Recognizing the varied and extreme mood swings associated with manic depression is crucial in obtaining effective treatment, and avoiding the potentially painful consequences of the reckless, manic behavior.
In most cases, long-term, preventive treatment is necessary to stabilize the mood swings associated with manic depression.

Personality Disorders

What are Personality Disorders?

For persons without a personality disorder, personality traits are patterns of thinking, reacting, and behaving that remain relatively consistent and stable over time. Persons with a personality disorder display more rigid and maladaptive thinking and reacting behaviors that often disrupt their personal, professional, and social lives.

What are the most common types of Personality Disorders?

Generally, personality disorders are divided into three subtypes (or clusters), and include the following:

Treatment for Personality Disorders:

Specific treatment for each personality disorder will be determined by your physician based on:

Personality disorders are often difficult to treat and may require long-term attention to change the inappropriate behavior and thought patterns. Treatment may include:

---

Phobias

What is a Phobia?

According to the American Psychiatric Association, a phobia is an uncontrollable, irrational, and persistent fear of a specific object, situation, or activity. The fear experienced by people with phobias can be so great that some individuals go to extreme lengths to avoid the source of their fear. One extreme response to the source of a phobia can be a panic attack.

Who is affected by Phobias?

Every year, approximately 19 million of Americans experience one or more phobias that range from mild to severe. Phobias can occur in early childhood, but usually are first evident between the ages of 15 and 20 years. They affect both genders equally, although men are more likely to seek treatment for phobias.

What causes Phobias?

Research suggests that both genetic and environmental factors contribute to the onset of phobias. Specific phobias have been associated with a fearful first encounter with the phobic object or situation. The question still exists, however, whether this conditioning exposure is necessary or if phobias can develop in genetically predisposed individuals.

What are the three primary types of Phobias?

---

Schizophrenia

What is Schizophrenia?

Schizophrenia is one of the most complex of all mental health disorders. It involves a severe, chronic, and disabling disturbance of the brain. And, what was once classified as a psychological disease is now classified as a brain disease.

What causes Schizophrenia?

There is no known single cause responsible for schizophrenia. It is believed that a chemical imbalance in the brain is an inherited factor which is necessary for schizophrenia to develop. However, it is likely that many factors--genetic, behavioral, and environmental--play a role in the development of this mental health condition.
Schizophrenia is considered to be multifactorially inherited. Multifactorial inheritance means that "many factors" are involved. The factors are usually both genetic and environmental, where a combination of genes from both parents, in addition to unknown environmental factors, produce the trait or condition. Often, one gender (either males or females) is affected more frequently than the other in multifactorial traits. There appears to be a different threshold of expression, which means that one gender is more likely to show the problem, over the other gender. Slightly more males develop schizophrenia in childhood, however, by adolescence schizophrenia affects males and females equally.

Who is affected by Schizophrenia?

Although schizophrenia affects men and women equally, symptoms in men generally begin earlier than in women. In most cases, schizophrenia first appears in men during their late teens or early 20s. In women, schizophrenia often first appears during their 20s or early 30s.
Statistics indicate that schizophrenia affects 2.7 million Americans. A child born into a family with one or more schizophrenic family member has a greater chance of developing schizophrenia than a child born into a family with no history of schizophrenia.
After a person has been diagnosed with schizophrenia in a family, the chance for a sibling to also be diagnosed with schizophrenia is 7 to 8 percent. If a parent has schizophrenia, the chance for a child to have the disorder is 10 to 15 percent. Risks increase with multiple affected family members.

What are the symptoms of Schizophrenia?

One of the most disturbing and puzzling characteristics of schizophrenia is the sudden onset of its psychotic symptoms. The following are the most common symptoms of schizophrenia. However, each individual may experience symptoms differently. Symptoms may include

The symptoms of schizophrenia are often classified as positive (symptoms including delusions, hallucinations, and bizarre behavior), negative (symptoms including flat affect, withdrawal, and emotional unresponsiveness), disorganized speech (including speech that is incomprehensible), and disorganized or catatonic behavior (including marked mood swings, sudden aggressive, or confusion, followed by sudden motionlessness and staring).
The symptoms of schizophrenia in children are similar to adults, however, children, more often (in 80 percent of diagnosed cases), experience auditory hallucinations and typically do not experience delusions or formal thought disorders until mid-adolescence or older.
The symptoms of schizophrenia may resemble other problems or psychiatric conditions. Always consult your physician for a diagnosis.

How is schizophrenia diagnosed?

Schizophrenia is usually diagnosed by a psychiatrist. Other mental health professionals usually participate in the completion of a comprehensive mental health evaluation to determine individualized treatment needs.

Treatment for schizophrenia:

Specific treatment for schizophrenia will be determined by your physician based on:

Schizophrenia is a major psychiatric illness. Treatment for schizophrenia is complex. A combination of therapies is often necessary to meet the individualized needs of the individual with schizophrenia. Treatment is aimed at reducing the symptoms associated with the disorder. Types of treatment that may be helpful to an individual with schizophrenia may include:

Prevention of Schizophrenia

Preventive measures to reduce the incidence of schizophrenia are not known at this time. However, identification and early intervention can improve the quality of life experienced by persons with schizophrenia. Further, treatment is most successful when symptoms of the first psychotic episode are addressed properly and promptly. It is crucial for an individual who is prescribed medications for the treatment of schizophrenia to remain compliant. Dosages and types of medications may need to be adjusted periodically to maintain effectiveness. Always consult your physician for more information.

---

Insomnia

What is Insomnia?

If you experience difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, or enjoying a restful night's sleep, you may be suffering from insomnia. Insomnia is defined as the perception or complaint of inadequate or poor-quality sleep because of one or more of the following:

Insomnia is a common symptom in the US. The Institute of Medicine estimates that between 50 and 70 million Americans have chronic sleep problems.

Insomnia is classified as:

What causes insomnia?

Insomnia may be caused by many factors, including the following:

What are the Symptoms of Insomnia?

Guidelines that may help sleep problems:

People who suffer from insomnia that lasts for more than a few days should consult a physician so that the underlying cause can be identified, if possible, then treated. If you have loud, irregular snoring, jerking legs, or pauses in breathing in addition to other symptoms of insomnia, seek the advice of a physician. These symptoms may be related to sleep apnea, a potentially life-threatening condition. There are a variety of effective treatment options available

---

Substance Abuse / Chemical Dependency

Addiction of Alcohol and/or Drugs

Parental and peer substance use are considered two of the more common factors contributing to youthful decisions regarding substance use. The age at which adolescents begin to use alcohol is decreasing, with 25 percent of young people beginning to drink before the age of 13, according to the CDC.
Some adolescents are more at risk of developing substance-related disorders. This includes adolescents with one or more of the following conditions present: children of substance abusers; adolescents who are victims of physical, sexual, or psychological abuse; adolescents with mental health problems, especially depressed and suicidal teens; and physically disabled adolescents.
Adolescent substance abuse is believed by some to be the most commonly missed pediatric diagnosis. Adolescents who use drugs are most likely to visit a physician's office with no obvious physical findings. Substance abuse problems are more likely to be discovered by physicians when adolescents are injured in accidents occurring while under the influence, or when they are brought for medical services because of intentional efforts to hurt themselves.

What is Substance Abuse/Chemical Dependence?

There are three different terms used to define substance-related disorders, including the following:

What substances are most often abused?

Substances frequently abused include, but are not limited to, the following:

What causes substance Abuse/Chemical Dependence?

Cultural and societal norms influence acceptable standards of substance use. Public laws determine the legal use of substances. The question of whether there is a normative pattern of substance use remains controversial. Substance-related disorders are caused by multiple factors including genetic vulnerability, environmental stressors, social pressures, individual personality characteristics, and psychiatric problems. However, which of these factors are primary and which are secondary has not been determined in all cases.

What are the symptoms of substance Abuse/Chemical dependence?

Substance Abuse Prevention Programs for Teens There are approaches frequently used to prevent adolescent substance use and abuse, including school-based prevention programs that usually provide drug and alcohol education and interpersonal and behavior skills training. Community-based prevention programs usually involve the media and are aimed for parents and community groups. Family-focused prevention programs involve parent training, family skills training, children's social skills training, and family self-help groups. Research literature available suggests that components of family-focused prevention programs have decreased the use of alcohol and drugs in older children and improved the effectiveness of parenting skills. The following are the most common behaviors that indicate an individual is having a problem with substance abuse. However, each individual may experience symptoms differently. Symptoms may include:

The symptoms of substance abuse may resemble other medical problems or psychiatric conditions. Always consult your physician for a diagnosis.

How is Substance Abuse/Chemical Dependence Diagnosed?

A family physician, psychiatrist, or qualified mental health professional usually diagnoses substance abuse. Clinical findings often depend on the substance abused, the frequency of use, and the length of time since last used, and may include the following:

Treatment for Substance Abuse/Chemical Dependence

Specific treatment for substance abuse/chemical dependence will be determined by your physician based on:

A variety of treatment programs for substance abuse are available on an inpatient or outpatient basis. Programs considered are usually based on the type of substance abused. Detoxification (if needed, based on the substance abused) and long-term follow-up management are important features of successful treatment. Long-term follow-up management usually includes formalized group meetings and developmentally age-appropriate psychosocial support systems, as well as continued medical supervision. Individual and family psychotherapy are often recommended to address the developmental, psychosocial, and family issues that may have contributed to and resulted from the development of a substance abuse disorder.

---

Calming The Nervous System With Ayurveda

Dosha (Cause) Concerns

The nervous system is governed by the vata dosha according to Ayurveda. Doshas are the bioenergetic systems of the body and vata is one of three doshas which make up the human system: vata controls movement, pitta provides metabolism, and kapha governs tissue, bones and lubrication.
Of course, it is actually not that compartmentalized because all the doshas are interdependent and interact with each other. When you eat, vata moves the food to the digestive system, lubricated by kapha, where pitta will do the digestion.
Vata is considered the most important dosha because it is identified with prana energy. According to Wikipedia, prana is the sanskrit word for “vital life” the life giving vital force that supports us all. Vata governs the mind, nervous system, psychological processes, blood circulation, the somatic nervous system, and the movement of food and wastes.
Because vata not only regulates the nervous system but also our creativity, a vata imbalance negatively affects our ability to create. There are many signs of vata imbalance; one of the most important ones for highly sensitive people is anxiety. When we become anxious, the focus of our attention shifts to the cause of our anxiety. We are then unable to move forward into our creativity until the source of our anxiety is resolved. If it remains unresolved, chronic debilitating stress is the result and we can feel blocked.
Although the vata dosha is all about movement, one important cause of anxiety is too much movement or chaos in our environment. Vata needs a balance between stability and movement to be effective. Providing vata with stability helps an individual reduce and let go of anxiety, opening the door to more creative intention. The first law of nature is survival, so safety is always the first priority. Without a feeling of safety, vata becomes bogged down; with a feeling of safety vata feels good and can flourish.

Herbs that Can Reduce Stress, Anxiety, & Tension

Bacopa Moneri is an outstanding nervine tonic used for many neurological disorders.
Evolvulus alsinoides Linn has been employed clinically for centuries for itsmemory potentiating, anxiolytic and tranquilizing properties.
Nardostachys jatamansi have neuroprotective,anti convulsant activity best antioxidant action. Tino cordifolia is well known medhya rasayan from Ayurved Rasaraj ras which is beneficial in paralysis, Extremely beneficial in facial paralysis, in various types of nervous disorders.
Tapyadi loha -a combination used in haemarregic condition in brain.

Ayurvedic Suppliment :: NurayuRich

Herbs have used for thousands of years in Ayurvedic medicine, Traditional Chinese Medicine and in herbalism. Herbs have been known to treat a variety of symptoms and diseases. Stress is the number one most serious health problem Herbs can be categorized in three types adaptogen, tonic, and nervine herbs. Adaptogenic herbs help the body adapt to stress through balancing the nervous system. Tonic herbs strengthen the organs and bodies system to prepare for stress. Tonic nerves are able to increase or decrease the activity of the bodily processes in a specific system.Nervine herbs heal the damage caused by stress and combat further stressful influence. Nervine herbs can be distinguished as a sedative to relax and calm the nerves or as a stimulant to perk up energy. Most herbs fit into more than one category or type of herb giving it increased ability to relieve, reduce and alleviate symptoms, illnesses and disease. Due to the fact that herbs generally correlate to specific areas or systems of the body, there are a large number of herbs that can relieve stress and anxiety. Here you can find a few of these herbs and how they affect the body.

ADAPTOGEN:

TONIC:

NERVINE:

---

Yoga Poses for the Nervous System

Yoga teaches you to calm as well as stimulate your nervous system so as to enable it to reach a state of equanimity. This is achieved through the practice of asanas (Yoga poses), Pranayamas (breathing exercises), psycho-physiological practices such as relaxation and meditation. Then there are the positive attitudes Yoga helps cultivate, thereby establishing complete control over the nervous system. So, in addition to the beneficial physical effects of Yoga are the fantastic, subtle benefits it showers upon the mind and heart. However, this does call for dedicated and regular practice. Some of the asanas that best benefit the nervous system and promote mental and emotional health include:

Inverted poses such as:

Restorative poses such as

Relaxation poses such as

Together with these, it is even better to practice the following Pranayamas (breathing exercises):

It is even better to take time off to practice a few minutes of meditation and abide by a Yogic diet. This means Sattvic fare (light, pure and predominantly vegetarian). Within three or four months, even the most agitated, anxious, nervous and restless person is bound to see positive results. Whether you practice Yoga to reduce muscular tension, slow your breathing and heart rate, or to calm your racing mind, a simple routine will prove to be the safest and most effective way to a healthier body and nervous system.

---